Question 1

A herbalist wanted to find out which herbs were best for treating people with headaches, so she did a research study to compare green herbs with yellow herbs. The people who used the green herbs had fewer headaches compared to the people who used the yellow herbs.

How sure can we be that green herbs are better than yellow herbs?

• A) Very sure. It is not likely that the green herbs are harmful because people who used them had less headaches.
• B) It is impossible to say. The herbalist did not study possible harmful effects of the herbs.
• C) Very sure, because the people who used the green herbs har less headaches.

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Question 2

Imagine you hear about a drink made from beetroot on the radio. The makers of the drink say that if you have some of it every day, you will live a long life.

Based on what the makers of the drink claim, how sure can you be that beetroot will give you a long life?

• A) Very sure, but the drink may also frighten you by making your pee (urine) red.
• B) Not very sure. Very few treatments help everyone who takes them.
• C) Very sure. If it was not true, the makers of the drink would not have said this.

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Question 3

Thomas says that eating healthy foods will keep him from getting sick. George says we cannot be certain about this, so Thomas should eat whatever he wants. Edith says that although we cannot be certain, eating healthy foods is probably a good idea.

Who is right?

• A) Thomas is right, we can be certain that eating healthy foods will keep him from getting sick.
• B) George is right, we cannot be certain, so Thomas should not worry about what he eats.
• C) Edith is right, although we cannot be certain, eating healthy foods probably helps.
• D) They are all wrong. We can be certain, but Thomas should eat whatever he wants.

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Question 4

Molly has a tummy ache. She says she needs medicine to make her better.

Is she right?

• A) No, she will very likely get better without any medicine.
• B) Yes, she very likely will not get better without medicine.
• C) It is not possible to say. She should try and see if it helps.
• D) It is not possible to say. She needs to see a doctor.

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Question 5

Imagine you read a story in the newspaper saying that using a cream on your skin can keep you from getting sick by improving how your blood moves. The story also says that the cream is harmless because it is made of natural oils.

Based on this, how sure can you be that the cream will keep you from getting sick?

• A) Not very sure. This explanation of how the cream might work seems unlikely, I would ask somebody who has tried it.
• B) Just because there is an explanation of how the cream might work, this does not mean that it actually does work, or that it is harmless.
• C) It is not possible to decide. The only way to know is to test this cream myself.
• D) Very sure. Since there is an explanation of how the cream works, this is probably based on studies of the cream.

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Question 6

Peter often has a headache. A friend advises him to exercise. He says that people who exercise have fewer headaches than people who do not exercise. Based on this link between exercise and headaches, Peter’s friend says that exercise will give him fewer headaches.

Is Peter’s friend right?

• A) It is not possible to say. There might be other differences between people who exercise and people who do not.
• B) It is not possible to say without knowing how much people exercised.
• C) Yes, because exercise must help if people who exercise have fewer headaches than people who do not.

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Question 7

Doctors studied people with stomach pain before and after they took a new medicine. After taking the new medicine, many people felt less pain.

Can we be sure that the new medicine is good for treating stomach pain?

• A) No, taking the new medicine should have been compared either with not taking the medicine, or with taking an older medicine.
• B) Yes, people were asked how much pain they felt before and after they took the new medicine.
• C) Yes, the study was done by doctors.

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Question 8

Harriet is worried about getting sick. She hears about a new research study on the radio that compared a new medicine to an old medicine. Fewer people who took the old medicine got sick compared to the people who took the new medicine.

How sure can Harriet be that the old medicine is better than the new medicine?

• A) Less sure, because Harriet needs to know the results of all other studies comparing the new medicine with the old medicine.
• B) More sure, because she heard about the study on the radio.
• C) Less sure, unless she finds another study with the same results.
• D) More sure, because this is a new study.

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Question 9

Imagine you read a story in the newspaper about a herbal medicine for treating headaches. In the story, a doctor says that even though the medicine has been used for a long time and that many people say it has worked for them, we cannot be very sure that it is helpful.

The doctor is right, but why do you think he is?

• A) He is a doctor, and we can trust what he says.
• B) The people who have tried the herbal medicine may not be telling the truth.
• C) The herbal medicine may not have been compared in studies to other treatments.

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Question 10

Imagine you have a fever and a new treatment for fever is available in the shops.

Is the new treatment much more likely to be better than older treatments?

• A) Yes, new treatments are always tested and proved to be better than older treatments before they are made available in the shops.
• B) No, new treatments are only slightly more likely to be better than older treatments, and they may be harmful.
• C) Yes, new treatments are usually better and are less likely to be harmful.
• D) No, old treatments are much more likely to be better, because many people have tried them.

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Question 11

Wamala has a very bad cough and is preparing for his final exams. He starts by using a drink, a cough medicine, to get better. Instead of taking one drink, as he normally does, he takes two drinks. He thinks that this will help him get rid of his cough more quickly.

Is Wamala right that taking two drinks of cough medicine is better than taking one?

• A) No, taking two drinks of cough medicine will not necessarily make him get better more quickly and it may be harmful.
• B) It is not possible to say. He may need three drinks to get better.
• C) Yes, it cannot do any harm, and it is important for him to get better more quickly for his final exams.
• D) Yes, if one drink of cough medicine usually works for him, taking two drinks will make him get rid of his cough more quickly.

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Question 12

Two companies make two different medicines for treating stomach pain. Each of them says that their medicine is the better one.

How can you know which of the two medicines is better for stomach pain?

• A) It is not possible to say. The companies may just say their medicine is best because they want to make money.
• B) I would rely on the best known company; it is more likely to have the best medicine.
• C) I cannot trust either of the companies. They are probably both wrong.

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Question 13

George has stomach pain. The last time George had a stomach pain was two months ago. That time, he drank some hot milk and after an hour, his stomach pain was gone. Therefore, George says hot milk cures stomach pain.

Is George right?

• A) It is not possible to say. His stomach pain might have gone away without the hot milk.
• B) It is not possible to say, but it is likely to be true based on the fact that George had this experience.
• C) Yes, George’s experience is enough to show that hot milk makes stomach pain go away.

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Question 14

Imagine your friend has a skin rash. He says that he will try a cream for it, which was recommended by an expert on the radio. Your friend says that “experts are always up to date with studies comparing treatments”.

Is your friend right to believe this?

• A) No, experts may base their advice on their own experience, and not on studies comparing treatments.
• B) No, but that does not matter; professional experience is enough.
• C) Yes, experts almost always base their advice on studies comparing treatments; it is part of their job.

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Question 15

In a research study, doctors gave a new treatment - a medicine - to people with stomach pain, and an older medicine to similar people. The doctors decided who should get the old treatment and the new treatment.

How sure can we be about the results of this comparison of the two treatments?

• A) Less sure, because people should have been able to decide which treatment they were given.
• B) Less sure, because chance (like tossing a coin) should have been used to decide which of the two treatments each patient would receive.
• C) Less sure, because both groups should have got the new treatment.

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Question 16

A doctor did a research study to find out if a new medicine for people having problems with breathing was better than an older medicine. In the study, people were given either the new medicine or the older medicine. The doctor asked people who were given the new medicine to visit her during the following weeks. The people who got the old medicine just sent messages to the doctor about how they felt.

We cannot be sure about the results of this study. Why?

• A) Because all people in the study should have been given the old medicine.
• B) Because all people in the study should have been given the new medicine.
• C) Because the people given the new medicine visited the doctor and the people given the old medicine did not.

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Question 17

Sharifa wants to get rid of her pimples. She finds a research study done by doctors comparing people washing their face with soap and people washing their face with only water. The doctors tried to hide from the people taking part in the study whether they were using soap or just water.

However, many people who used water figured out that they had not been given soap, and so stopped washing their faces. At the end of the study, more people had pimples in the group who got only water.

How sure can Sharifa be that soap gets rid of pimples?

• A) Less sure, because people knew whether they got soap or only water.
• B) More sure, because some people figured out that they only got water and were not fooled by the doctors.
• C) Less sure, because the doctors lied to the people who only got water.

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Question 18

Alice has made a new drink to cure stomach pain. She decided to do a research study to compare people drinking her new drink with people drinking water. At the end of the study, she asked people how much stomach pain they had.

Why can’t we be sure about the results of this study?

• A) Because Alice probably thinks her new drink is better than water, so there was no need to do a study comparing it with water.
• B) Because Alice probably had opinions about her drink and she was aware of who got which drink when she asked people how much pain they had.
• C) Because Alice probably had opinions about her drink, both groups should have got her drink.

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Question 19

A doctor compared two treatments in a research study of people with back pain. However, the doctor was not able to stay in touch with many of the people who started the study.

How sure can we be about the results of this study?

• A) More sure, because it does not matter that the doctor was not able to stay in touch with people. Some people taking part in studies just lose interest.
• B) It depends on the reasons why the doctor was not able to stay in touch with people, and how the doctor counted their results.
• C) More sure, because the results of the people with whom the doctor was not able to stay in touch with cannot be trusted anyway.

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Question 20

A review summarized studies comparing playing sports with other ways of making people happy. The review authors included all studies that found that sports improve people’s happiness. Based on these studies, the review authors said that sport definitely improves happiness.

Do you agree with what the review authors said?

• A) No. The review authors included only those studies with favorable results.
• B) It is not possible to say without knowing the opinion of sports experts.
• C) Yes. The review authors were sure that sports improves happiness.
• D) Yes, the review authors included all of the studies with favorable results.

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Question 21

Rebecca and Patrick read about a new treatment in the newspaper. It says that the treatment has a small effect. Patrick says they cannot be sure what that means.

Is Patrick right?

• A) No, if the newspaper says the treatment has a small effect, that means it is not helpful.
• B) It is not possible to say. It depends who said it has a small effect.
• C) No, if there was a small effect, that means the treatment is helpful.
• D) Yes, because “small” can mean different things to different people.

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Question 22

A new and an old mosquito spray were compared in a research study. In the study, two houses were sprayed with the new spray, and two houses were sprayed with the old spray. Based on this study, the new spray was better for protecting against mosquito bites than the old spray. Neither of the sprays was found to be harmful to people.

How sure can you be about what the study found?

• A) Less sure, because only four houses were studied and the differences between sprays may have happened by chance.
• B) More sure, because the new spray was better for protecting against mosquito bites and it was not harmful.
• C) More sure, because the new spray was found to be better, and the differences between sprays is unlikely to have happened by chance.

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Question 23

Imagine that you often have headaches. You find a systematic review (a careful summary) of all studies comparing a new medicine with other medicines for headaches. The authors of the systematic review conclude that there is a lack of evidence that the new medicine is more effective.

What does this mean?

• A) We do not know whether the new medicine is better than other medicines for headaches.
• B) The new medicine is as effective as the other medicines.
• C) The other medicines were more effective than the new medicine.
• D) There was no difference between the new medicine and the other medicines.

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Question 24

Lots of people in Anita’s school have been having stomach pain. Arnold says they should stop eating so much bread.

Is Arnold right?

• A) Yes, if they eat lots of bread at Anita’s school, that might be causing the stomach pain.
• B) He might be. They should try eating less bread and see if it helps.
• C) It is not possible to say, without knowing more about the problem and the options.
• D) No, people eat bread all the time without having stomach pain.

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Question 25

A doctor did a research study to find out whether tea is better than warm water with honey for children with stomach pain. The doctor found that more of the children who got warm water with honey finished their drinks compared to those who got tea. Based on this study, the doctor said that warm water with honey should be given to children with stomach pain.

Does this mean that warm water with honey is better than tea for stomach pain in children?

• A) Yes. If children like the drink it probably works better for pain.
• B) Yes. Warm water with honey was more popular among the children, so it is a good treatment for stomach pain in children.
• C) It is not possible to say, because the study did not measure children's stomach pain.

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Question 26

Doctors did a research study in mice comparing a new medicine for pain with an old medicine. The mice that got the new medicine had less pain compared with mice given the old medicine. The doctors doing the study said that the new medicine was promising and could improve the lives of people in pain.

Which of the following answers is the most correct about whether this new medicine will work the same way in people?

• A) Just because the new medicine worked in mice does not mean that it will work in people.
• B) Whether the new medicine will work in people depends on whether another study with mice has the same results.
• C) If the new medicine works in mice it probably works in people too, otherwise the doctors would not have done the study in mice to begin with.

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Question 27

Jane often has headaches. Her doctor tells her that there is a medicine that may help her, but it may harm her. The medicine is also very expensive.

What does Jane need to think about before using the medicine?

• A) Whether the medicine will help her more than it will harm her, and if it is worth the cost.
• B) Whether anybody she knows has tried the medicine so that she can ask them what they thought about it.
• C) Whether to ask another doctor, since the doctor must be wrong. A medicine which is helpful cannot be harmful at the same time.
• D) Whether she has enough money to buy the medicine, since trying it could not harm her.

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Question 28

Two people did a systematic review (summary) of all studies comparing children having sports in school with children not having sports. The review found that, based on the included studies, more children who had sports were happy compared to children who did not have sports. The review authors said this evidence was very certain.

What does it mean that the evidence was very certain?

• A) There is a low risk of experts disagreeing with the results of the review.
• B) There is a low risk of being misled by chance, and the included studies were fair comparisons and relevant.
• C) The people who did the review felt they had done a good job.
• D) The included studies were done by experts.

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